Correlates of female Trichomonas vaginalis infection
| Bivariate model | Multivariable model* | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N with T. vaginalis/total | % | RR | 95% CI | p Value | RR | 95% CI | p Value | |
| Female characteristics | ||||||||
| Age, years | 0.011† | |||||||
| 18–24 | 223/1625 | 13.7 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| 25–34 | 385/3651 | 10.6 | 0.77 | 0.66 to 0.90 | 0.001 | 0.90 | 0.76 to 1.07 | 0.253 |
| 35–44 | 201/1809 | 11.1 | 0.81 | 0.68 to 0.97 | 0.020 | 0.85 | 0.68 to 1.06 | 0.154 |
| ≥45 | 48/445 | 10.8 | 0.79 | 0.59 to 1.05 | 0.108 | 0.63 | 0.44 to 0.89 | 0.009 |
| Education, years | ||||||||
| <9 | 626/5336 | 11.7 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| ≥9 | 231/2195 | 10.5 | 0.90 | 0.78 to 1.03 | 0.135 | – | – | – |
| Monthly income | ||||||||
| No earned income | 560/4023 | 13.9 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Earns income | 297/3508 | 8.5 | 0.61 | 0.53 to 0.69 | <0.001 | 0.88 | 0.76 to 1.02 | 0.096 |
| Outside sex partners | ||||||||
| None | 842/7460 | 11.3 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Any | 15/71 | 21.1 | 1.87 | 1.19 to 2.95 | 0.007 | 1.78 | 1.15 to 2.76 | 0.009 |
| HIV-1 serostatus | ||||||||
| Negative | 230/2659 | 8.7 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Positive | 627/4872 | 12.9 | 1.49 | 1.29 to 1.72 | <0.001 | 1.19 | 1.02 to 1.38 | 0.023 |
| Neisseria gonorrhoeae | ||||||||
| Negative | 810/7238 | 11.2 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Positive | 34/124 | 27.4 | 2.45 | 1.83 to 3.29 | <0.001 | 1.65 | 1.23 to 2.23 | 0.001 |
| Chlamydia trachomatis | ||||||||
| Negative | 819/7253 | 11.3 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Positive | 25/105 | 23.8 | 2.11 | 1.49 to 2.99 | <0.001 | 1.19 | 0.76 to 1.86 | 0.442 |
| Treponema pallidum serostatus | ||||||||
| Negative | 797/7148 | 11.2 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Positive | 34/252 | 13.5 | 1.21 | 0.88 to 1.67 | 0.242 | – | – | – |
| Bacterial vaginosis | <0.001† | |||||||
| Normal | 222/3601 | 6.2 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Intermediate | 206/1276 | 16.1 | 2.62 | 2.19 to 3.13 | <0.001 | 2.04 | 1.70 to 2.44 | <0.001 |
| Bacterial vaginosis | 358/1999 | 17.9 | 2.90 | 2.48 to 3.40 | <0.001 | 1.96 | 1.67 to 2.30 | <0.001 |
| Contraception | <0.001† | |||||||
| None/condoms/other | 639/5128 | 12.5 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Surgical | 40/349 | 11.5 | 0.92 | 0.68 to 1.24 | 0.585 | 1.07 | 0.80 to 1.42 | 0.658 |
| Intrauterine device | 3/70 | 4.3 | 0.34 | 0.11 to 1.04 | 0.059 | 0.50 | 0.18 to 1.37 | 0.177 |
| Oral contraceptives | 36/364 | 9.9 | 0.79 | 0.58 to 1.09 | 0.155 | 0.95 | 0.71 to 1.28 | 0.736 |
| Implant | 21/208 | 10.1 | 0.81 | 0.54 to 1.22 | 0.317 | 1.37 | 0.87 to 2.17 | 0.179 |
| Injectable | 118/1412 | 8.4 | 0.67 | 0.56 to 0.81 | <0.001 | 0.77 | 0.64 to 0.94 | 0.008 |
| Couple characteristics | ||||||||
| Married to partner | ||||||||
| No | 180/736 | 24.5 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Yes | 677/6795 | 10.0 | 0.41 | 0.35 to 0.47 | <0.001 | 0.74 | 0.59 to 0.93 | 0.011 |
| Living with partner | ||||||||
| No | 93/414 | 22.5 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Yes | 764/7117 | 10.7 | 0.48 | 0.39 to 0.58 | <0.001 | 0.89 | 0.69 to 1.13 | 0.330 |
| Unprotected sex, past month | ||||||||
| None | 509/5017 | 10.2 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Any | 348/2514 | 13.8 | 1.36 | 1.20 to 1.55 | <0.001 | 1.08 | 0.95 to 1.24 | 0.228 |
| Living children | ||||||||
| None | 334/1920 | 17.4 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| ≥1 | 523/5610 | 9.3 | 0.54 | 0.47 to 0.61 | <0.001 | 0.80 | 0.69 to 0.92 | 0.002 |
| Region | ||||||||
| Eastern Africa | 629/6511 | 9.7 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Southern Africa | 228/1020 | 22.4 | 2.31 | 2.02 to 2.65 | <0.001 | 1.19 | 0.97 to 1.47 | 0.097 |
| Study | ||||||||
| Partners HSV/HIV | 478/3033 | 15.8 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Partners PrEP | 379/4498 | 8.4 | 0.53 | 0.47 to 0.61 | <0.001 | 0.96 | 0.82 to 1.13 | 0.651 |
| Testing method | ||||||||
| Culture | 87/1192 | 7.3 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| NAAT | 770/6339 | 12.2 | 1.66 | 1.35 to 2.06 | <0.001 | 1.07 | 0.82 to 1.41 | 0.613 |
| Male characteristics | ||||||||
| Age, years | 0.007† | |||||||
| 18–24 | 65/476 | 13.7 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| 25–34 | 335/2861 | 11.7 | 0.86 | 0.67 to 1.10 | 0.223 | 1.15 | 0.90 to 1.48 | 0.267 |
| 35–44 | 262/2668 | 9.8 | 0.72 | 0.56 to 0.93 | 0.011 | 0.99 | 0.75 to 1.32 | 0.965 |
| ≥45 | 195/1524 | 12.8 | 0.94 | 0.72 to 1.22 | 0.625 | 1.26 | 0.93 to 1.71 | 0.135 |
| Education, years | ||||||||
| <9 | 562/4396 | 12.8 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| ≥9 | 294/3134 | 9.4 | 0.73 | 0.64 to 0.84 | <0.001 | 0.72 | 0.63 to 0.82 | <0.001 |
| Monthly income | ||||||||
| No earned income | 320/1825 | 17.5 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Earns income | 537/5706 | 9.4 | 0.54 | 0.47 to 0.61 | <0.001 | 0.82 | 0.71 to 0.94 | 0.006 |
| Outside sex partners | ||||||||
| None | 757/6746 | 11.2 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Any | 100/784 | 12.8 | 1.14 | 0.94 to 1.38 | 0.198 | – | – | – |
| N. gonorrhoeae | ||||||||
| Negative | 845/7445 | 11.4 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Positive | 10/57 | 17.5 | 1.55 | 0.88 to 2.72 | 0.132 | – | – | – |
| C. trachomatis | ||||||||
| Negative | 831/7386 | 11.3 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Positive | 24/115 | 20.9 | 1.85 | 1.29 to 2.66 | 0.001 | 1.13 | 0.75 to 1.71 | 0.554 |
| T. pallidum serostatus | ||||||||
| Negative | 796/7132 | 11.2 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Positive | 32/248 | 12.9 | 1.16 | 0.83 to 1.61 | 0.389 | – | – | – |
| Circumcision status | ||||||||
| Uncircumcised | 492/4001 | 12.3 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Circumcised | 365/3528 | 10.4 | 0.84 | 0.74 to 0.96 | 0.008 | 0.82 | 0.72 to 0.94 | 0.004 |
| T. vaginalis | ||||||||
| Negative | 662/7212 | 9.2 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Positive | 195/319 | 61.1 | 6.66 | 5.94 to 7.46 | <0.001 | 4.70 | 4.10 to 5.38 | <0.001 |
*N=6714 for multivariable model after excluding couples with missing values.
†The reported p Value is from a likelihood ratio test across all values of the covariate.
NAAT, nucleic acid amplification test; PrEP, pre-exposure prophylaxis.