Correlates of male Trichomonas vaginalis infection
| Bivariate model | Multivariable model* | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N with T. vaginalis/total | % | RR | 95% CI | p Value | RR | 95% CI | p Value | |
| Male characteristics | ||||||||
| Age, years | <0.001† | |||||||
| 18–24 | 25/476 | 5.3 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| 25–34 | 92/2861 | 3.2 | 0.61 | 0.40 to 0.94 | 0.026 | 0.70 | 0.44 to 1.11 | 0.129 |
| 35–44 | 113/2668 | 4.2 | 0.81 | 0.53 to 1.23 | 0.318 | 1.00 | 0.62 to 1.62 | 0.990 |
| ≥45 | 89/1524 | 5.8 | 1.11 | 0.72 to 1.71 | 0.630 | 0.97 | 0.58 to 1.62 | 0.901 |
| Education, years | ||||||||
| <9 | 216/4396 | 4.9 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| ≥9 | 103/3134 | 3.3 | 0.67 | 0.53 to 0.84 | 0.001 | 0.78 | 0.61 to 1.01 | 0.057 |
| Monthly income | ||||||||
| No earned income | 132/1852 | 7.2 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Earns income | 187/5706 | 3.3 | 0.45 | 0.36 to 0.56 | <0.001 | 0.83 | 0.65 to 1.05 | 0.125 |
| Outside sex partners | ||||||||
| None | 293/6746 | 4.3 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Any | 26/784 | 3.3 | 0.76 | 0.51 to 1.13 | 0.180 | – | – | – |
| HIV-1 serostatus | ||||||||
| Negative | 244/4872 | 5.0 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Positive | 75/2659 | 2.8 | 0.56 | 0.44 to 0.73 | <0.001 | 0.69 | 0.53 to 0.90 | 0.006 |
| Neisseria gonorrhoeae | ||||||||
| Negative | 315/7445 | 4.2 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Positive | 2/57 | 3.5 | 0.83 | 0.21 to 3.25 | 0.788 | – | – | – |
| Chlamydia trachomatis | ||||||||
| Negative | 308/7386 | 4.2 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Positive | 9/115 | 7.8 | 1.88 | 0.99 to 3.55 | 0.053 | – | – | – |
| Treponema pallidum serostatus | ||||||||
| Negative | 296/7135 | 4.2 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Positive | 10/248 | 4.0 | 0.97 | 0.52 to 1.80 | 0.927 | – | – | – |
| Circumcision status | ||||||||
| Uncircumcised | 154/4001 | 3.9 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Circumcised | 165/3528 | 4.7 | 1.22 | 0.98 to 1.51 | 0.076 | – | – | – |
| Couple characteristics | ||||||||
| Married to partner | ||||||||
| No | 56/736 | 7.6 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Yes | 263/6795 | 3.9 | 0.51 | 0.39 to 0.67 | <0.001 | 1.17 | 0.84 to 1.64 | 0.359 |
| Living with partner | ||||||||
| No | 23/414 | 5.6 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Yes | 296/7117 | 4.2 | 0.75 | 0.50 to 1.13 | 0.169 | – | – | – |
| Unprotected sex, past month | ||||||||
| None | 196/5017 | 3.9 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Any | 123/2514 | 4.9 | 1.25 | 1.00 to 1.56 | 0.045 | 1.00 | 0.80 to 1.24 | 0.965 |
| Living children | ||||||||
| None | 103/1920 | 5.4 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| ≥1 | 216/5610 | 3.9 | 0.72 | 0.57 to 0.90 | 0.005 | 1.08 | 0.85 to 1.37 | 0.535 |
| Region | ||||||||
| Eastern Africa | 234/6511 | 3.6 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Southern Africa | 85/1020 | 8.3 | 2.32 | 1.83 to 2.95 | <0.001 | 1.10 | 0.81 to 1.51 | 0.533 |
| Study | ||||||||
| Partners HSV/HIV | 192/3033 | 6.3 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Partners PrEP | 127/4498 | 2.8 | 0.45 | 0.36 to 0.56 | <0.001 | 0.72 | 0.54 to 0.95 | 0.021 |
| Testing method | ||||||||
| Culture | 16/1192 | 1.3 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| NAAT | 303/6339 | 4.8 | 3.56 | 2.16 to 5.87 | <0.001 | 2.43 | 1.27 to 4.65 | 0.008 |
| Female characteristics | ||||||||
| Age, years | 0.018† | |||||||
| 18–24 | 73/1625 | 4.5 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| 25–34 | 135/3651 | 3.7 | 0.82 | 0.62 to 1.09 | 0.171 | 1.01 | 0.74 to 1.37 | 0.960 |
| 35–44 | 80/1809 | 4.4 | 0.98 | 0.72 to 1.34 | 0.921 | 1.21 | 0.83 to 1.75 | 0.318 |
| ≥45 | 31/445 | 7.0 | 1.55 | 1.03 to 2.33 | 0.035 | 1.47 | 0.88 to 2.47 | 0.146 |
| Education, years | ||||||||
| <9 | 244/5336 | 4.6 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| ≥9 | 75/2195 | 3.4 | 0.75 | 0.58 to 0.96 | 0.025 | 0.79 | 0.60 to 1.04 | 0.096 |
| Monthly income | ||||||||
| No earned income | 222/4023 | 5.5 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Earns income | 97/3508 | 2.8 | 0.50 | 0.40 to 0.63 | <0.001 | 0.90 | 0.68 to 1.19 | 0.462 |
| Outside sex partners | ||||||||
| None | 316/7460 | 4.2 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Any | 3/71 | 4.2 | 1.00 | 0.33 to 3.04 | 0.996 | – | – | – |
| N. gonorrhoeae | ||||||||
| Negative | 307/7238 | 4.2 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Positive | 10/124 | 8.1 | 1.90 | 1.04 to 3.48 | 0.037 | 1.15 | 0.63 to 2.11 | 0.647 |
| C. trachomatis | ||||||||
| Negative | 313/7253 | 4.3 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Positive | 4/105 | 3.8 | 0.88 | 0.34 to 2.32 | 0.801 | – | – | – |
| T. pallidum serostatus | ||||||||
| Negative | 299/7148 | 4.2 | Ref | – | – | – | – | – |
| Positive | 12/252 | 4.8 | 1.14 | 0.65 to 2.00 | 0.652 | – | – | – |
| Bacterial vaginosis | <0.001† | |||||||
| Normal | 96/3601 | 2.7 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Intermediate | 70/1276 | 5.5 | 2.06 | 1.52 to 2.78 | <0.001 | 1.14 | 0.84 to 1.53 | 0.395 |
| Bacterial vaginosis | 121/1999 | 6.1 | 2.27 | 1.75 to 2.95 | <0.001 | 1.10 | 0.85 to 1.42 | 0.473 |
| Contraception | 0.049† | |||||||
| None/condoms/other | 2227/5128 | 4.4+ | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Surgical | 16/349 | 4.6 | 1.04 | 0.63 to 1.70 | 0.890 | 0.96 | 0.59 to 1.56 | 0.877 |
| Intrauterine device | 1/70 | 1.4 | 0.32 | 0.05 to 2.27 | 0.256 | 0.66 | 0.10 to 4.22 | 0.664 |
| Oral contraceptives | 18/364 | 5.0 | 1.12 | 0.70 to 1.78 | 0.643 | 1.42 | 0.91 to 2.22 | 0.125 |
| Implant | 2/208 | 1.0 | 0.22 | 0.05 to 0.87 | 0.031 | 0.25 | 0.04 to 1.61 | 0.145 |
| Injectable | 55/1412 | 3.9 | 0.88 | 0.66 to 1.17 | 0.385 | 1.23 | 0.92 to 1.65 | 0.156 |
| T. vaginalis | ||||||||
| Negative | 124/6674 | 1.9 | Ref | – | – | Ref | – | – |
| Positive | 195/857 | 22.8 | 12.25 | 9.89 to 15.16 | <0.001 | 10.09 | 7.92 to 12.85 | <0.001 |
*N=6744 for multivariable model after excluding couples with missing values.
†The reported p Value is from a likelihood ratio test across all values of the covariate.
NAAT, nucleic acid amplification test; PrEP, pre-exposure prophylaxis.