Total, n | % | HIV-positive/MG-positive, n | % | HIV-positive/MG-negative, n | % | HIV-negative/MG-positive, n | % | HIV-negative/MG-negative, n | % | OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | |
Total | 197 | 100 | 22 | 11 | 70 | 36 | 13 | 6.6 | 92 | 47 | ||
Maternal age, median (IQR) | 29 (24–34) | 30 (24–33) | 33 (28–36) | 25 (22–28) | 27 (22–32) | 0.96 (0.90 to 1.02) | ||||||
18–24 years | 50 | 25 | 6 | 27 | 6 | 8.6 | 4 | 31 | 34 | 37 | 2.38 (0.69 to 8.22) | |
25–34 years | 105 | 53 | 12 | 55 | 38 | 54 | 9 | 69 | 46 | 50 | 2.38 (0.76 to 7.40) | |
35–45 years | 42 | 21 | 4 | 18 | 26 | 37 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 13 | Reference | |
Gestational age, median weeks (IQR) | 19 (14–23) | 20 (15–21) | 19 (14–23) | 21 (18–26) | 19 (13–24) | 1.04 (0.98 to 1.10) | ||||||
Relationship with the father of the child | ||||||||||||
Married/cohabiting | 94 | 48 | 7 | 32 | 35 | 50 | 5 | 38 | 47 | 51 | Reference | |
Unmarried/not cohabiting/no relationship | 103 | 52 | 15 | 68 | 35 | 50 | 8 | 62 | 45 | 49 | 1.97 (0.92 to 4.21) | 1.55 (0.69 to 3.49)* |
Ever experienced intimate partner violence | 4 | 2 | 1 | 4.6 | 1 | 1.4 | 1 | 7.7 | 1 | 1.1 | 4.85 (0.66 to 35.66) | 7.66 (0.92 to 63.87)† |
Sexual behaviour during pregnancy | ||||||||||||
Vaginal sex | 181 | 92 | 19 | 86 | 63 | 90 | 13 | 100 | 86 | 93 | 0.93 (0.25 to 3.46) | |
Oral sex | 6 | 3.1 | 1 | 4.6 | 2 | 2.9 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3.3 | 0.92 (0.11 to 8.16) | |
Anal sex | 5 | 2.5 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 4.3 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2.2 | – | |
Sex partners during pregnancy | ||||||||||||
≤1 | 195 | 99 | 21 | 95 | 69 | 99 | 13 | 100 | 92 | 100 | Reference | |
>1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4.6 | 1 | 1.4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4.74 (0.29 to 77.59) | |
Suspect partner of having other sex partners | ||||||||||||
No | 103 | 52 | 11 | 50 | 33 | 47 | 8 | 62 | 51 | 55 | Reference | |
Yes | 63 | 32 | 8 | 36 | 28 | 40 | 3 | 23 | 24 | 26 | 0.94 (0.41 to 2.12) | |
Don’t have a partner | 5 | 2.5 | 1 | 4.6 | 3 | 4.3 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1.1 | 1.11 (0.12 to 10.46) | |
Don’t know | 26 | 13 | 2 | 9.1 | 6 | 8.6 | 2 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 0.80 (0.25 to 2.61) | |
STI diagnosis in study | ||||||||||||
Negative | 132 | 67 | 9 | 41 | 46 | 66 | 9 | 69 | 68 | 74 | Reference | |
Positive (CT, NG and/or TV) | 65 | 33 | 13 | 59 | 24 | 34 | 4 | 31 | 24 | 26 | 2.24 (1.07 to 4.72) | 1.82 (0.85 to 3.93)† |
CT | 40 | 20 | 5 | 23 | 13 | 19 | 3 | 23 | 19 | 21 | 1.20 (0.50 to 2.90) | |
NG | 13 | 6.6 | 1 | 4.6 | 9 | 13 | 1 | 7.7 | 2 | 2.2 | 0.83 (0.18 to 3.93) | |
TV | 30 | 15 | 8 | 36 | 12 | 17 | 1 | 7.7 | 9 | 9.8 | 2.32 (0.96 to 5.64) | 2.00 (0.80 to 5.03)† |
STI symptoms during pregnancy | ||||||||||||
Any | 46 | 23 | 6 | 27 | 16 | 23 | 2 | 15 | 22 | 24 | 0.97 (0.41 to 2.31) | |
Vaginal discharge | 27 | 14 | 3 | 14 | 8 | 11 | 1 | 7.7 | 15 | 16 | 0.78 (0.25 to 2.42) | |
Pain during intercourse | 12 | 6.1 | 2 | 9.1 | 4 | 5.7 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 6.5 | 0.92 (0.19 to 4.40) | |
Pain during urination | 9 | 4.6 | 1 | 4.6 | 3 | 4.3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 5.4 | 0.57 (0.07 to 4.68) | |
Vaginal bleeding | 5 | 2.5 | 3 | 14 | 1 | 1.4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1.1 | 7.50 (1.20 to 46.71) | 6.17 (0.82 to 46.32)‡ |
Genital sores | 6 | 3.1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 4.3 | 1 | 7.7 | 2 | 2.2 | 0.92 (0.11 to 8.16) | |
HIV status | ||||||||||||
Negative | 105 | 53 | – | – | – | – | 13 | 100 | 92 | 100 | Reference | |
Positive | 92 | 47 | 22 | 100 | 70 | 100 | – | – | – | – | 2.22 (1.05 to 4.72) | 3.09 (1.36 to 7.06)§ |
CD4 count (cells x 109/L) (n=6 missing) | ||||||||||||
<0.5 | 44 | 51 | 11 | 52 | 33 | 51 | – | – | – | – | 1.07 (0.40 to 2.86) | |
≥0.5 | 42 | 49 | 10 | 48 | 32 | 49 | – | – | – | – | Reference | |
Viral load (copies/mL) (n=3 missing) | ||||||||||||
<1000 | 74 | 83 | 16 | 76 | 58 | 85 | – | – | – | – | Reference | |
≥1000 | 15 | 17 | 5 | 24 | 10 | 15 | – | – | – | – | 1.81 (0.54 to 6.07) | |
Couple serostatus | ||||||||||||
Concordant HIV-uninfected | 70 | 36 | – | – | – | – | 9 | 69 | 61 | 66 | Reference | |
Concordant HIV-infected | 28 | 14 | 5 | 23 | 23 | 33 | – | – | – | – | 1.47 (0.45 to 4.86) | |
Discordant | 22 | 11 | 4 | 18 | 14 | 20 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 4.4 | 1.51 (0.42 to 5.47) | |
Don’t know | 77 | 39 | 13 | 59 | 33 | 47 | 4 | 31 | 27 | 29 | 1.92 (0.79 to 4.64) | |
Partner serostatus | ||||||||||||
Partner HIV-uninfected | 88 | 45 | 4 | 18 | 14 | 20 | 9 | 69 | 61 | 66 | Reference | |
Partner HIV-infected | 32 | 16 | 5 | 23 | 23 | 33 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 4.4 | 1.07 (0.35 to 3.28) | |
Don’t know | 77 | 39 | 13 | 59 | 33 | 47 | 4 | 31 | 27 | 29 | 1.64 (0.74 to 3.63) |
Confidence intervals in bold had sufficient evidence to conclude that the groups were statistically significantly different.
*Model adjusted for maternal age and HIV infection status.
†Model adjusted for maternal age, HIV infection status and partner relationship status.
‡Model adjusted for maternal age, HIV infection status and STI coinfection (CT, NG, and/or TV).
§Model adjusted for maternal age.
CT, Chlamydia trachomatis; MG, Mycoplasma genitalium; NG, Neisseria gonorrhoeae; TV, Trichomonas vaginalis.